Brain

In animals, the brain (enkephale) (Greek for "in the skull"), is the control center of the central nervous system, responsible for behavior. The brain is located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary sensory apparatus of vision, hearing, equilibrioception (balance), sense of taste, and olfaction (smell).

Brain - most related articles:

- Family history of brain tumors raises brain cancer risk - 2.3
- Cell phone usage not causing brain tumor - 2.2
- Alzheimer's disease drug treats traumatic brain injury - 2.2
- Genes spread breast cancer cells to brain - 2.1
- Meth use during pregnancy linked to abnormal brain in baby - 2.1
- HIV virus hides in the brain - 2.1
- Blast related injuries detected in brains of US military personnel - 2.1
- Mechanism for cell death after stroke revealed - 2.1
- Smoking increases brain lesions and brain shrinkage in MS - 2

Brain articles

Stroke risk greater for older women with atrial fibrillation
In a study that examined use of the anticoagulant medication warfarin and risk of stroke following a diagnosis of atrial fibrillation in older patients, women, especially those 75 years or older, had a higher risk of stroke than men, regardless of their risk profile and use of warfarin, suggesting that current anticoagulant therapy to prevent stroke might not be sufficient for older women.

Brain cancer vaccine prepared from brain tumor proves effective
A new brain cancer vaccine tailored to individual patients by using material from their own tumors has proven effective in a multicenter phase 2 clinical trial at extending their lives by several months or longer. The patients suffered from recurrent glioblastoma multiforme-which kills thousands of Americans every year.

Speaking more than one language may ward off symptoms of dementia
New study examines how being bilingual can offer protection from the symptoms of dementia, and also suggests that the increasing diversity in our world populations may have an unexpected positive impact on the resiliency of the adult brain.

Antibody may cure variety of human cancers
Human tumors transplanted into laboratory mice disappeared or shrank when scientists treated the animals with a single antibody. This antibody works by masking a protein flag on cancer cells that protects them from macrophages and other cells in the immune system.

Alzheimer's Disease patients may not get benefit from antioxidants
An antioxidant combination of vitamin E, vitamin C and a-lipoic acid (E/C/ALA) was not associated with changes in some cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers related to Alzheimer disease in a randomized controlled trial, revealed by researchers.

Statin use reduces Parkinson Disease risk
Regular use of cholesterol-lowering statin drugs may be associated with a modest reduction in risk for developing Parkinson disease, particularly among younger patients. Statins are one of the most prescribed classes of drugs in the United States.

Reversing Alzheimer's gene blockade can restore memory
MIT neuroscientists have shown that an enzyme overproduced in the brains of Alzheimer's patients creates a blockade that shuts off genes necessary to form new memories. Furthermore, by inhibiting that enzyme in mice, the researchers were able to reverse Alzheimer's symptoms.

Omega 3 fatty acids linked to aging and memory problems
A diet lacking in omega-3 fatty acids, nutrients commonly found in fish, may cause your brain to age faster and lose some of its memory and thinking abilities. Omega-3 fatty acids include the nutrients called docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA).

Bexarotene cancer drug may reverse Alzheimer's symptoms
Neuroscientists at Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine have made a dramatic breakthrough in their efforts to find a cure for Alzheimer's disease. The research shows that use of a drug in mice appears to quickly reverse the pathological, cognitive and memory deficits caused by the onset of Alzheimer's.

Earlier sign of autism can be noticed in 6 months old infants
In their first year of life, babies who will go on to develop autism already show different brain responses when someone looks at or away from them. Although the researchers are careful to say that the study, reported in the Cell Press journal Current Biology, is only a first step toward earlier diagnosis, the findings do suggest that direct brain measures might help to predict the future development of autism symptoms in infants as young as six months.

Brain stimulating habits lowers Alzheimer's disease risk
Individuals who keep their brains active throughout life with cognitively stimulating activities such as reading, writing and playing games appear to have reduced levels of the ß-amyloid protein, which is the major part of the amyloid plaque in Alzheimer disease.

Memory, mental aging, cognitive decline can begin as early as age 45
The brain's capacity for memory, reasoning and comprehension skills (cognitive function) can start to deteriorate from age 45. But, previous research suggests that cognitive decline does not begin before the age of 60, but this view is not universally accepted.

Magnetic stimulation of brain may help stroke patients recover
Imagine waking up and being unable to see or recognize anything on the left side of your body. This condition, called hemispatial neglect, is common after a stroke that occurs on the right side of the brain.

Cognitive decline linked to brain volume decreases in parkinson's disease patients
Patients with Parkinson disease-related dementia appear to have increased brain atrophy in the hippocampal, temporal and parietal lobes and decreased prefrontal cortex volume compared to patients with Parkinson disease without dementia.

10% of ADHD patients linked to GMR gene variants
Pediatric researchers analyzing genetic influences in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have found alterations in specific genes involved in important brain signaling pathways.

Heading a soccer ball could lead to brain injury
Frequent 'heading' in soccer can lead to brain injury and cognitive impairment, revealed by researchers. Einstein Montefiore research suggests frequency threshold for injury that could lead to safety guidelines.

Children with ADHD may have functional brain pathways disrupted
Some abnormalities in the brains of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may serve as a biomarker for the disorder, according to a study presented at the annual meeting of the Radiological Society of North America (RSNA).

Brain cell channel defect may cause autism like syndrome
What goes wrong in the brain when an individual suffers from autism. Autism is a spectrum of developmental disorders of impaired social and verbal interaction. Currently, no medication exists to treat its underlying causes, according to the U.S. National Library of Medicine.

Dreaming helps ease bad and painful memories
During the dream phase of sleep, also known as REM sleep, our stress chemistry shuts down and the brain processes emotional experiences and takes the painful edge off difficult memories. Time spent in dream sleep can help.

People with early Alzheimer's disease may have lower BMI
People in the earliest stages of Alzheimer's disease are more likely to have a lower body mass index (BMI). A new study examined 506 people with advanced brain imaging techniques and analyses of cerebrospinal fluid to look for biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease, which can be present years before the first symptoms begin.

Meditation may help brain to recover from diseases
Brain imaging study reveals that experienced meditators seem to be able switch off areas of the brain associated with daydreaming as well as psychiatric disorders such as autism and schizophrenia.

Nicotine primes brain for drug abuse like cocaine
Cigarettes and alcohol serve as gateway drugs, which people use before progressing to the use of marijuana and then to cocaine and other illicit substances; this progression is called the "gateway sequence" of drug use.

Depression uncouples brain's hate circuit
Depression frequently seems to uncouple the brain's "Hate Circuit". The study entitled "Depression Uncouples Brain Hate Circuit" is published in the journal Molecular Psychiatry.

Autism linked to gene mutation on chromosome 16
Scientists at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL) have discovered that one of the most common genetic alterations in autism -- deletion of a 27-gene cluster on chromosome 16 -- causes autism-like features.

Low vitamin B12 may lead to brain shrinkage and cognitive problems
Older people with low blood levels of vitamin B12 markers may be more likely to have lower brain volumes and have problems with their thinking skills, according to researchers at Rush University Medical Center.

Successful separation of conjoined craniopagus Sudanese twins
Twin girls joined at the head, such that their major brain blood vessels were interconnected, have been safely separated. UK charity Facing the World played the central role in funding treatment, evaluating the children abroad, supporting the family and handling the logistics to bring Rital and Ritag Gaboura and their parents to London.

Bipolar symptoms and emotional brain in youth
Recognition of bipolar symptoms and bipolar disorder in adolescents is now clearly established. However, whether bipolarity exists in children remains controversial despite numerous studies that have been conducted on this topic in the last fifteen years.

Stroke clinical trial finds intensive medical treatment better than brain stent
Patients at a high risk for a second stroke who received intensive medical treatment had fewer strokes and deaths than patients who received a brain stent in addition to the medical treatment, a large nationwide clinical trial has shown.

Depression linked to 29% increased risk of stroke in women
Depressed women may face an increased risk of stroke, according to new research reported in Stroke: Journal of the American Heart Association. A variety of mechanisms may lead depression to cause stroke.

29 new genetic variants linked to multiple sclerosis
Scientists have identified 29 new genetic variants linked to multiple sclerosis, providing key insights into the biology of a very debilitating neurological disease. Many of the genes implicated in the study are relevant to the immune system, shedding light onto the immunological pathways that underlie the development of multiple sclerosis.

Obesity counseling should focus on neurobehavioral processes
Current approaches to dietary counseling for obesity are heavily rooted in the notion of personal choice and will power – the ability to choose healthy foods and portion sizes consistent with weight loss while foregoing sweets and comfort foods. According to preventive medicine and behavioral experts at Rush University Medical Center, research supports a new counseling approach that views obesity as a result of neurobehavioral processes - ways in which the brain controls eating behavior in response to cues in the environment.

Lithium may prevent brain damage in patients with Parkinson's disease
Researcher are focusing on lithium as a potential treatment for Parkinson's disease -- PD -- as well as its efficacy in combination with drugs currently used to control the symptoms of the disease. Lithium profoundly prevents the aggregation of toxic proteins and cell loss associated with Parkinson's disease (PD) in a mouse model of the condition.

Parkinson's patients sing in tune with creative arts therapy
Twice a month a jam session takes place on the third floor of Northwestern Memorial's Prentice Women's Hospital. A diverse group of men and women, ranging in age and ethnicity, gather in a circle with instruments in hand and sing together. This is no ordinary jam band; all its members have Parkinson's disease. They are participating in Creative Arts for Parkinson's, a music and drama therapy program offered through Northwestern's Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders Center.

Brain development linked to symptoms of ADHD
Brain development appear to play an important role among children presenting with early onset symptoms of ADHD (Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder). Researchers found reduced caudate volumes in affected children compared to the children who did not present with ADHD symptoms.

Use of clot busters for stroke increased from 2005 to 2009
The use of clot-busting drugs to treat acute ischemic stroke increased from 2005 through 2009 - but is still low, according to research reported in Stroke: Journal of the American Heart Association.

Blast related injuries detected in brains of US military personnel
An advanced imaging technique has revealed that some U.S. military personnel with mild blast-related traumatic brain injuries have abnormalities in the brain that have not been seen with other types of imaging. The abnormalities were found in the brain's white matter, the wiring system that nerve cells in the brain use to communicate with each other.

Low vitamin D levels seen as multiple sclerosis risk for African Americans
Vitamin D levels in the blood are lower in African Americans who have the disease, compared to African Americans who do not, revealed by researchers exploring the connection between vitamin D and multiple sclerosis in African Americans.

Autism changes molecular structure of brain
A new UCLA study is the first to reveal how the autism disorder makes its mark at the molecular level, resulting in an autistic brain that differs dramatically in structure from a healthy one.

Chronic low back pain treatment can reverse abnormal brain activity
It likely comes as no surprise that low back pain is the most common form of chronic pain among adults. Lesser known is the fact that those with chronic pain also experience cognitive impairments and reduced gray matter in parts of the brain associated with pain processing and the emotional components of pain, like depression and anxiety.

Memory problems often not present in middle aged people with Alzheimer's disease
A new study suggests more than half of people who develop Alzheimer's disease before the age of 60 are initially misdiagnosed as having other kinds of brain disease when they do not have memory problems.

Most blacks report calling a friend when facing symptoms of stroke
Most African-Americans report calling a friend instead of 911 when faced with the symptoms of a stroke, according to a new study that surveyed those hospitalized for a stroke.

Turning bad fat into good - A future treatment for obesity
By knocking down the expression of a protein in rat brains known to stimulate eating, Johns Hopkins researchers say they not only reduced the animals' calorie intake and weight, but also transformed their fat into a type that burns off more energy. The finding could lead to better obesity treatments for humans, the scientists report.

Social status affects the way our brains respond to others
Our own social status influences the way our brains respond to others of higher or lower rank, according to a new study reported online on April_28 in Current Biology, a Cell Press publication.

GM-CSF required for the immune attack in multiple sclerosis
The neutralization of the cytokine GM-CSF could halt the development of multiple sclerosis, demonstrated by the research team of the immunologist Burkhard Becher at the University of Zurich in an animal model.

Cluttered brain doesn't remember
Lapses in memory occur more frequently with age, yet the reasons for this increasing forgetfulness have not always been clear. According to new research from Concordia University, older individuals have reduced learning and memory because their minds tend to be cluttered with irrelevant information when performing tasks.

Musical activity may improve cognitive aging
A study conducted by Brenda Hanna-Pladdy, PhD, a clinical neuropsychologist in Emory's Department of Neurology, and cognitive psychologist Alicia MacKay, PhD, found that older individuals who spent a significant amount of time throughout life playing a musical instrument perform better on some cognitive tests than individuals who did not play an instrument.

Brain size predicts dementia in advance in Alzheimer's disease
Subtle differences in brain anatomy among older individuals with normal cognitive skills may be able to predict both the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease in the following decade and how quickly symptoms of dementia would develop.

Omega 3 and fish during pregnancy curbs postpartum depression symptoms
Fish has long been considered in myriad cultures to be "brain food," but only recently has bona fide science begun to support this deep-rooted belief.

Stem cells take cues from CSF fluid in brain
Proteins in fluids bathing the brain are essential for building the brain, revealed by researchers in the journal Neuron. The finding promises to advance research related to neurological disease, cancer and stem cells.

Brain's learning capacity recharged during sleep
During sleep, we're busy recharging our brain's learning capacity, which can take up half the night, revealed a new study from the University of California, Berkeley.

Gene therapy clearing toxic proteins in brain may prevent Alzheimer's disease
Gene therapy that boosts the ability of brain cells to gobble up toxic proteins prevents development of Alzheimer's disease in mice that are predestined to develop it, report researchers at Georgetown University Medical Center.

EEG can diagnose autism spectrum disorders in infants
A computational physicist and a cognitive neuroscientist at Children's Hospital Boston have come up with the beginnings of a noninvasive test to evaluate an infant's autism risk.

Stroke rate declined in middle aged, elderly, increased in young
The number of acute ischemic stroke hospitalizations among middle-aged and older men and women fell between 1994 and 2007, but sharply increased among those under age 35 - including teens and children - according to research presented at the American Stroke Association's International Stroke Conference 2011.

Antipsychotic drugs may lead to brain loss in schizophrenia patients
Patients with schizophrenia who take antipsychotic medications appear to lose a small but measurable amount of brain tissue over time, according to a report in the February issue of Archives of General Psychiatry.

Imaging can identify biomarker of alzheimer's disease
Preliminary research suggests that use of a type of molecular imaging procedure may have the ability to detect the presence of beta-amyloid in the brains of individuals during life, a biomarker that is identified during autopsy to confirm a diagnosis of Alzheimer disease.

Reducing diet in pregnancy may affect brain growth in fetus
Eating less during early pregnancy impaired fetal brain development in a nonhuman primate model, revealed by researchers from The University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio.

Statin may raise stroke risk in patients with brain hemorrhage
People with brain hemorrhage - a type of stroke - should avoid taking cholesterol lowering drugs called statins, revealed by researchers in US.

Beet juice can increase blood flow to the brain in older
Drinking beet juice can increase blood flow to the brain in older adults – a finding that could hold great potential for combating the progression of dementia.

Acute pain is eased with the touch of a hand
Self touch offers significant relief for acute pain under experimental conditions, revealed by researchers in Current Biology. This is a reason that people naturally clutch their hand after receiving an injury.

Beta amyloid protein spurs formation of Alzheimer's plaques
In Alzheimer's disease, the problem is beta-amyloid, a protein that accumulates in the brain and causes nerve cells to weaken and die. Drugs designed to eliminate plaques made of beta-amyloid have a fatal problem: they need to enter the brain and remove the plaques without attacking healthy brain cells.

Genetic variant linked to common migraine
Researchers have produced new insights into the triggers for migraines attacks. They have identified the first-ever genetic risk factor associated with common types of migraine.

HIV virus hides in the brain
Studies of the spinal fluid of patients given anti-HIV drugs have resulted in new findings suggesting that the brain can act as a hiding place for the HIV virus.

Rheumatoid arthritis signaling protein may reverse Alzheimer's disease
A signaling protein released during rheumatoid arthritis dramatically reduced Alzheimer's disease pathology and reversed the memory impairment of mice bred to develop symptoms of the neurodegenerative disease, a new study by the University of South Florida reports.

Inherited brain activity predicts childhood anxiety risk
A new study focused on anxiety and brain activity pinpoints the brain regions that are relevant to developing childhood anxiety.

Tests can predict falls in Parkinson's disease
A group of tests may help predict which people with Parkinson's disease are more likely to fall, according to a study published in the June 23, 2010, online issue of Neurology®, the medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology.

Brain imaging findings in Alzheimer's disease associated with genetic factors
By investigating the association between genetic loci related to Alzheimer's disease and neuroimaging measures related to disease risk, researchers may have uncovered additional evidence that several previously studied genetic variants are associated with the development and progression of Alzheimer's disease and also may have identified new genetic risk factors for further study, according to a report in the June issue of Archives of Neurology, one of the JAMA/Archives journals.

Tobacco companies challenged anti smoking signs in US
In US, 3 tobacco companies Philip Morris, Lorillard and R. J. Reynolds, and trade associations have challenged antismoking graphic images of diseased brains, lungs and teeth.

Deep brain stimulation is an effective treatment for Parkinson's disease
Studies have shown that a "brain pacemaker" called deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an effective treatment for Parkinson's disease.

New target for antidepressants for depression and anxiety
University of Michigan scientists have provided the most detailed picture yet of a key receptor in the brain that influences the effectiveness of serotonin-related antidepressants, such as Prozac.

Acupuncture's molecular effects pinned down
Scientists have taken another important step toward understanding just how sticking needles into the body can ease pain. In a paper published online May_30 in Nature Neuroscience, a team at the University of Rochester Medical Center identifies the molecule adenosine as a central player in parlaying some of the effects of acupuncture in the body.

Early clamping may interrupt humankind's first natural stem cell transplant
The timing of umbilical cord clamping at birth should be delayed just a few minutes longer, suggest researchers at the University of South Florida's Center of Excellence for Aging and Brain Repair.

Exposure to bacteria can increase learning behavior
Exposure to specific bacteria in the environment, already believed to have antidepressant qualities, could increase learning behavior according to research presented today at the 110th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology in San Diego.

Blood flows differently through the brains of schizophrenic patients
Researchers in Germany have used a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique called continuous arterial spin labeling (CASL) to map cerebral blood flow patterns in schizophrenic patients quickly and without using radiation or contrast agents. Their findings appear in the online edition and July printed issue of the journal Radiology.

World leaders focus on stroke prevention, care
On the 40th anniversary of the journal Stroke: Journal of the American Heart Association, stroke leaders from around the world celebrated stroke research accomplishments and set an agenda for the future, according to a special report in the journal.

Abdominal fat at middle age linked to dementia
Researchers from Boston University School of Medicine determined that excess abdominal fat places otherwise healthy, middle-aged people at risk for dementia later in life. Preliminary findings suggest a relationship between obesity and dementia that could lead to promising prevention strategies in the future.

Eye test for early detection of Alzheimer's and Down syndrome
Researchers are going to develop an innovative eye test for early detection of Alzheimer's disease and Down syndrome. As they discovered the protein that forms plaques in the brain in Alzheimer's disease also accumulates in the eyes of people with Down syndrome.

Robotic therapy can improve limb movement years after stroke
Patients show modest yet meaningful gains in limb movement and an improved outlook on life years after suffering a stroke, a major clinical study has found.

Smoking may increase multiple sclerosis risk
Smoking may increase the risk of multiple sclerosis (MS) in people who also have specific established risk factors for MS. The research is found in the April_7, 2010, online issue of Neurology®, the medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology.

Deep brain stimulation may reduce epileptic seizures
A recent study organized by Stanford University researchers found patients with refractory partial and secondarily generalized seizures had a reduction in seizures after deep brain stimulation.

Warfarin may lead to brain bleeding following stroke treatment
Patients already taking warfarin who develop an acute stroke appear more likely to experience a brain hemorrhage following treatment with an intravenous clot-dissolving medication, even if their blood clotting function appears normal, revealed by researchers.

Weight loss diets reduce atherosclerosis
A two-year study led by researchers at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU) found that healthy, long-term weight loss diets can significantly reverse carotid (main brain artery) atherosclerosis, a direct risk factor for strokes and heart attacks.

Soluble fiber boosts immune system and immunity
Soluble fiber - found in oats, apples, and nuts, for starters reduces the inflammation associated with obesity-related diseases and strengthens the immune system, revealed by researchers.

Stress raises memory loss in older diabetics
Researchers at the University of Edinburgh studied more than 900 men and women aged between 60 and 75 with type-2 diabetes, which tends to be common after the age of 40.

Progesterone for traumatic brain injury tested
Researchers at 17 medical centers across the US soon will begin using the hormone progesterone to treat patients who experience traumatic brain injury (TBI).

Boost brain power with oats
Researchers at UniSA's Nutritional Physiology Research Centre are investigating whether an oat extract can improve cognitive performance in older adults.

Secondary stroke prevention needs improvement
New research finds that one out of 12 people who have a stroke will likely soon have another stroke, and one out of four will likely die within one year.

Chocolate may lower stroke risk
Giving chocolates to your Valentine on February 14th may help lower their risk of stroke based on a preliminary study from researchers at St. Michael's Hospital.

Anxious peoples tend to over react
People with generalized anxiety disorder, or GAD, have abnormalities in the way their brain unconsciously controls emotions, revealed by researchers.

A mind at rest strengthens memories
Our memories are strengthened during periods of rest while we are awake, researchers at New York University have found.

Ampyra, dalfampridine approved for multiple sclerosis patients
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved Ampyra (dalfampridine) extended release tablets to improve walking in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS).

Concussion is a mild traumatic brain injury
Despite growing public interest in concussions because of serious hockey injuries or skiing deaths, a researcher from McMaster University has found that we may not be taking the common head injury seriously enough.

Natural vitamin E protects brain after stroke
Blocking the function of an enzyme in the brain with a specific kind of vitamin E can prevent nerve cells from dying after a stroke, new research suggests.

Testing gene therapy for Alzheimer's disease
University Hospitals Case Medical Center is one of 12 sites conducting the first Phase 2 clinical trial of a gene therapy for Alzheimer's disease (AD). The study uses a viral-based gene transfer system called CERE-110, which is designed to deliver nerve growth factor (NGF) into the brain.

Deep brain stimulation successful for depressive patient
A team of neurosurgeons at Heidelberg University Hospital and psychiatrists at the Central Institute of Mental Health, Mannheim have for the first time successfully treated a patient suffering from severe depression by stimulating the habenula, a tiny nerve structure in the brain.

Brain imaging may help diagnose autism disorder
Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) process sound and language a fraction of a second slower than children without ASDs, and measuring magnetic signals that mark this delay may become a standardized way to diagnose autism.

Cell phone may boost memory in Alzheimer's disease patients
The millions of people who spend hours every day on a cell phone may have a new excuse for yakking. A surprising new study in mice provides the first evidence that long-term exposure to electromagnetic waves associated with cell phone use may actually protect against, and even reverse, Alzheimer's disease.

Preparing for successful aging in the new year 2010
It's never too early or too late to start working toward the goal of improving brain health. So perhaps the New Year is the perfect time to consider how one achieves a long and satisfying life.

Cannabis in teens can cause depression and anxiety
Canadian teenagers are among the largest consumers of cannabis worldwide. The damaging effects of this illicit drug on young brains are worse than originally thought.

High leptin levels may protect against Alzheimer's disease, dementia
Researchers from Boston University School of Medicine (BUSM) have found that higher leptin (a protein that controls weight and appetite) levels were associated with a lower incidence of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and dementia.

Cooling may benefit children after cardiac arrest
When the heart is stopped and restarted, the patient's life may be saved but their brain is often permanently damaged. Therapeutic hypothermia, a treatment in which the patient's body temperature is lowered and maintained several degrees below normal for a period of time, has been shown to mitigate these harmful effects and improve survival in adults.

100 Brain articles listed above.

What is Brain
In animals, the brain (enkephale) (Greek for "in the skull"), is the control center of the central nervous system, responsible for behavior. The brain is located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary sensory apparatus of vision, hearing, equilibrioception (balance), sense of taste, and olfaction (smell).

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